Stereotypes about what boys and girls supposedly like aren’t hard to find.
Toy advertisements send signals that science and electronic toys are intended for boys rather than girls. Computer scientists and engineers on television shows and movies are often white men, like the guys on “The Big Bang Theory.”
But as researchers who specialize in motivation, identity and cognitive development, we think society has largely overlooked another harmful stereotype. And that is the notion that girls are less interested than boys are in STEM.
In our peer-reviewed research – published in November 2021 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences – we found that these stereotypes about girls’ interest in science, technology, engineering and math – or lack thereof – are fairly widespread among young people today. We also found that these stereotypes actually have an effect on girls’ motivation and sense of belonging in computer science and engineering.
Yet, the nation is still failing to diversify computer science and engineering. Only about 1 in 5 degrees in computer science and engineering go to women.
Our research shows that societal stereotypes linking these fields with boys and men act as a barrier that keeps girls and young women away. There have been many conversations about the harm caused by stereotypes about natural talent, which assert that men are better than women at STEM. But what might be even more detrimental for girls’ motivation are stereotypes that men are more interested than women in these activities and careers. These stereotypes may give girls the sense that they don’t belong.
Probing children’s perceptions
For our study, our first step was to document whether children and adolescents believe these societal stereotypes. We surveyed 2,277 youths in grades 1-12 in 2017 and 2019 about how interested they think girls and boys are in computer science and engineering. The majority of youths reported that boys were more likely than girls to be interested in these fields. Most youths – 63% – believed that girls are less interested than boys in engineering. Only 9% believed that girls are more interested than boys in engineering. These “interest stereotypes,” if you will, were endorsed by youths from diverse backgrounds, including Black, white, Asian and Hispanic youths.
They were endorsed by kids as early as age 6, in first grade. These beliefs about gendered interests were also more common than stereotypes about ability, that boys are more talented than girls at these fields.
We also discovered that these interest stereotypes were linked to worse outcomes for girls. The more that a typical girl in our study believed in these stereotypes favoring boys, the less motivated she was in computer science and engineering. This wasn’t the case for the typical boy. The more he believed in these stereotypes, the more motivated he was.
Effects on motivation
We also did two laboratory experiments using a gold-standard random-assignment design to see whether interest stereotypes have causal effects on motivation. We told children about two activities they could try. The only difference between the activities was that one activity – one that was randomly chosen – was linked to a stereotype that girls were less interested than boys in that activity.
The other activity was not linked to such a stereotype. If children preferred one activity over the other, we could infer that the stereotype caused a difference in their preferences. We found that interest stereotypes can actually cause girls’ lower motivation for computer science activities.
Only 35% of girls chose the stereotyped activity over the nonstereotyped activity. These stereotypes – which favored boys in this case – weren’t a problem for boys, who showed no preference. There was no gender gap when there was no stereotype – a gender gap only appeared when the activity was stereotyped.
Dismantling stereotypes
Why are interest stereotypes so powerful? Interest stereotypes may make girls assume: If boys like these fields more than girls, then I won’t like these fields either. They also send a clear signal about who belongs there. A sense of belonging matters a lot for motivation, including young women in STEM fields like computer science and engineering. The lower the girls’ sense of belonging, the lower their interest.
But what if the stereotypes are true? On average, girls in the U.S. usually do report being less interested than boys in computer science and engineering.
Whether or not these cultural stereotypes are currently true, we believe they can create a vicious cycle. Girls might miss out on opportunities because of an assumption that they are not interested or should not be interested in certain STEM fields. Unless adults deliberately send girls a different message about who belongs in computer science and engineering, we as a society discourage girls from trying these activities and discovering that they like them.
But the good news is that the lack of belonging that many girls feel in certain STEM feels is not permanent. On the contrary, we think it can be changed.
There are simple ways to send kids a different message about who likes to do computer science and engineering. Parents and other adults can check their assumptions about what toys to buy girls for their birthdays or holidays, or what summer camps they should attend. Girls can be shown examples of women like Aicha Evans and Debbie Sterling – women who are changing the world through technology and enjoying themselves while doing so.
It’s not enough for girls to realize that they can do computer science and engineering. In order to change the status quo, we think it’s necessary to spread the word that many girls actually want to do these things as well.
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Allison Master receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the U. S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute of Education Sciences, the U.S. Department of Education, or other funders.
Andrew N. Meltzoff gratefully acknowledges receipt of funding from the National Science Foundation, the Bezos Family Foundation, and the Overdeck Family Foundation. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the funders.
Sapna Cheryan receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences. The views expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent the views of these funders.
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Gender disparities persist in college majors, then trickle down to careers, whether in computer science and electrical engineering, or nursing and teaching. Some progress has been made in encouraging more women to enter male-dominated fields and to close gaps in wages. Computer programming is one example where the wage gap has shrunk since 2016. But in other cases, inequities persist: 50% of women leave tech jobs by the time they are 35 years old.
As for the reverse, women continue to dominate in careers such as nursing or teaching, but often men in those fields earn more than women. Women in government public health jobs make $3,000 less than men in the same positions, or men in special education jobs out earn women by $2,400.
StudySoup compiled data from the National Center for Education Statistics to identify 15 college majors with the greatest gender disparities. The data is submitted by all U.S. colleges participating in the Title IV federal financial aid program, with 2017–18 being the most recent year available. StudySoup removed majors with less than 5,000 students, leaving just over 1,000 disciplines in the dataset.
StudySoup recognizes the data collected views gender through a binary lens, which does not accurately represent all gender identities. A recent study estimates about 1.2 million adults in the U.S. identify as nonbinary, a population not explored in the collected data set.
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Gender disparities persist in college majors, then trickle down to careers, whether in computer science and electrical engineering, or nursing and teaching. Some progress has been made in encouraging more women to enter male-dominated fields and to close gaps in wages. Computer programming is one example where the wage gap has shrunk since 2016. But in other cases, inequities persist: 50% of women leave tech jobs by the time they are 35 years old.
As for the reverse, women continue to dominate in careers such as nursing or teaching, but often men in those fields earn more than women. Women in government public health jobs make $3,000 less than men in the same positions, or men in special education jobs out earn women by $2,400.
StudySoup compiled data from the National Center for Education Statistics to identify 15 college majors with the greatest gender disparities. The data is submitted by all U.S. colleges participating in the Title IV federal financial aid program, with 2017–18 being the most recent year available. StudySoup removed majors with less than 5,000 students, leaving just over 1,000 disciplines in the dataset.
StudySoup recognizes the data collected views gender through a binary lens, which does not accurately represent all gender identities. A recent study estimates about 1.2 million adults in the U.S. identify as nonbinary, a population not explored in the collected data set.
Students can go on to become a software developer, a web developer, a data visualizer, a programmer, or a security analyst. A study from Girls Who Code and Accenture found that women were dropping technology careers faster than men. Fifty percent of women leave their jobs by the time they are 35; only 21% said the technology industry would allow them to thrive. For women of color, that number drops to only 8%.
FrameStockFootages // Shutterstock
- Total students: 10,054
- Percent male students: 79.8%
- Percent female students: 20.2%
Students can go on to become a software developer, a web developer, a data visualizer, a programmer, or a security analyst. A study from Girls Who Code and Accenture found that women were dropping technology careers faster than men. Fifty percent of women leave their jobs by the time they are 35; only 21% said the technology industry would allow them to thrive. For women of color, that number drops to only 8%.
Though women make up the majority of veterinarians, a pay gap has persisted. A study found female veterinarians in private practices had a median income of $88,000 in 2011, compared to $112,000 for their male counterparts. By 2018, the pay gap had closed somewhat, with a mean starting salary of $82,000 for women compared to $85,000 for men—or from 9% in 2012 to 3% in 2018. But the pay gap widens over time, particularly among veterinarians with incomes of more than $100,000.
Odua Images // Shutterstock
- Total students: 5,890
- Percent male students: 20.1%
- Percent female students: 79.9%
Though women make up the majority of veterinarians, a pay gap has persisted. A study found female veterinarians in private practices had a median income of $88,000 in 2011, compared to $112,000 for their male counterparts. By 2018, the pay gap had closed somewhat, with a mean starting salary of $82,000 for women compared to $85,000 for men—or from 9% in 2012 to 3% in 2018. But the pay gap widens over time, particularly among veterinarians with incomes of more than $100,000.
Public health is another field in which women are in the majority but are paid less than men. Women in government public health jobs make $3,000 less each year than men in the same positions, according to 2017 data. Although women account for 79% of those in government jobs, they make up only 36% of the leadership.
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- Total students: 6,656
- Percent male students: 19.1%
- Percent female students: 80.9%
Public health is another field in which women are in the majority but are paid less than men. Women in government public health jobs make $3,000 less each year than men in the same positions, according to 2017 data. Although women account for 79% of those in government jobs, they make up only 36% of the leadership.
Men are not only over-represented in the computer science field, but they also can expect to have higher incomes. A 2021 study by the U.S. National Science Foundation found that among those with doctorates in mathematics and computer sciences, men anticipated a median salary of $125,000 compared to $101,500 for women. Researchers at Stanford Graduate School of Business found one reason women may make less than men in STEM—or science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—is self confidence. Employers in computer science and engineering appear to offer higher salaries to those who are self assured.
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- Total students: 26,313
- Percent male students: 81.7%
- Percent female students: 18.3%
Men are not only over-represented in the computer science field, but they also can expect to have higher incomes. A 2021 study by the U.S. National Science Foundation found that among those with doctorates in mathematics and computer sciences, men anticipated a median salary of $125,000 compared to $101,500 for women. Researchers at Stanford Graduate School of Business found one reason women may make less than men in STEM—or science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—is self confidence. Employers in computer science and engineering appear to offer higher salaries to those who are self assured.
The wage gap between men and women who work as programmers is about 11.3%, according to an analysis by Glassdoor. About 79% of programmers are men, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. While the pay gap is still vast, it has gotten smaller since 2016, when it was 28.3%. In information technology, that gap is 5.4%.
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- Total students: 20,707
- Percent male students: 82.2%
- Percent female students: 17.8%
The wage gap between men and women who work as programmers is about 11.3%, according to an analysis by Glassdoor. About 79% of programmers are men, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. While the pay gap is still vast, it has gotten smaller since 2016, when it was 28.3%. In information technology, that gap is 5.4%.
A 2016 article in the Harvard Business Review looked at why so many women left the engineering field and concluded that the male culture of engineering may be to blame. Female students reported being assigned menial tasks and being treated in stereotypical ways. Women account for 20% of all engineering graduates, but nearly 40% of them either do not work as engineers or they quit. Women also were more likely to say they were interested in “socially conscious” work.
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- Total students: 16,694
- Percent male students: 85.6%
- Percent female students: 14.4%
A 2016 article in the Harvard Business Review looked at why so many women left the engineering field and concluded that the male culture of engineering may be to blame. Female students reported being assigned menial tasks and being treated in stereotypical ways. Women account for 20% of all engineering graduates, but nearly 40% of them either do not work as engineers or they quit. Women also were more likely to say they were interested in “socially conscious” work.
Only 13.2% of bachelor’s degrees in mechanical engineering went to women in 2015, according to the American Society of Engineering education. But some universities are making progress in getting more women into the field. At MIT’s undergraduate Department of Mechanical Engineering, 49.5% of the students were women in 2016. One way the university drew more female students was to employ more female professors.
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- Total students: 35,182
- Percent male students: 85.7%
- Percent female students: 14.3%
Only 13.2% of bachelor’s degrees in mechanical engineering went to women in 2015, according to the American Society of Engineering education. But some universities are making progress in getting more women into the field. At MIT’s undergraduate Department of Mechanical Engineering, 49.5% of the students were women in 2016. One way the university drew more female students was to employ more female professors.
Students who specialize in human services can put their education to use in a variety of jobs, from case worker to community outreach worker, or substance abuse counselor to court support worker. But the wage gap persists: The average salary gap for male and female social workers was approximately $7,052, a 2011 study reported.
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- Total students: 6,938
- Percent male students: 13.7%
- Percent female students: 86.3%
Students who specialize in human services can put their education to use in a variety of jobs, from case worker to community outreach worker, or substance abuse counselor to court support worker. But the wage gap persists: The average salary gap for male and female social workers was approximately $7,052, a 2011 study reported.
According to the Pew Research Center, efforts to increase the number of women in STEM occupations is uneven. Women are still underrepresented in such jobs as computing, engineering, and physical sciences. Women earned 58% of all college degrees in 2018, but only about half of those degrees were in STEM fields. Women make up 25% of those employed in computer occupations, with their share in the field dropping from 2000 to 2016 before remaining stable.
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- Total students: 8,266
- Percent male students: 87.4%
- Percent female students: 12.6%
According to the Pew Research Center, efforts to increase the number of women in STEM occupations is uneven. Women are still underrepresented in such jobs as computing, engineering, and physical sciences. Women earned 58% of all college degrees in 2018, but only about half of those degrees were in STEM fields. Women make up 25% of those employed in computer occupations, with their share in the field dropping from 2000 to 2016 before remaining stable.
Despite the overwhelming preponderance of women in the field, men earn more than women, according to a study from Nurse.com. Men make on average $79,688 a year compared to $73,090 for women—a more than $6,000 difference. Men are more likely to negotiate their salaries—43% of men compared to 34% of women—and to complete a degree program or participate in training. This also extends to specialties as men who are certified in a specialty earned $1,252 more than women who are also certified.
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- Total students: 139,952
- Percent male students: 12.5%
- Percent female students: 87.5%
Despite the overwhelming preponderance of women in the field, men earn more than women, according to a study from Nurse.com. Men make on average $79,688 a year compared to $73,090 for women—a more than $6,000 difference. Men are more likely to negotiate their salaries—43% of men compared to 34% of women—and to complete a degree program or participate in training. This also extends to specialties as men who are certified in a specialty earned $1,252 more than women who are also certified.
In 2015, 83% of social workers were women, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. A study by the National Association of Social Workers found only 10% of these men considered a social work career path before college. One reason for the disparity may be a bias about who is able to best fill roles that involve caring for people. Men make up only 10% of the membership of the American Counseling Association, a drop from 30% in 1982.
Monkey Business Images // Shutterstock
- Total students: 21,698
- Percent male students: 11.3%
- Percent female students: 88.7%
In 2015, 83% of social workers were women, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. A study by the National Association of Social Workers found only 10% of these men considered a social work career path before college. One reason for the disparity may be a bias about who is able to best fill roles that involve caring for people. Men make up only 10% of the membership of the American Counseling Association, a drop from 30% in 1982.
Among special educator teachers, women make up 85.6% of the workforce. Despite this, men still earn more than women. Average salaries are $54,319 for men but only $51,915 for women, a difference of more than $2,000 a year.
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- Total students: 6,197
- Percent male students: 10.6%
- Percent female students: 89.4%
Among special educator teachers, women make up 85.6% of the workforce. Despite this, men still earn more than women. Average salaries are $54,319 for men but only $51,915 for women, a difference of more than $2,000 a year.
Since the beginning of the 1980s, more men have taken up teaching careers, but the share of women in the classroom continues to grow, according to a study led by the University of Pennsylvania. About 67% of public school teachers were women during the 1980–81 school year, and in the 2015–16 school year, that number rose to 76%.
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- Total students: 27,484
- Percent male students: 8.1%
- Percent female students: 91.9%
Since the beginning of the 1980s, more men have taken up teaching careers, but the share of women in the classroom continues to grow, according to a study led by the University of Pennsylvania. About 67% of public school teachers were women during the 1980–81 school year, and in the 2015–16 school year, that number rose to 76%.
A degree in human development and family studies can lead to jobs such as social worker, marriage or family therapist, or rehabilitation counselor. Men account for fewer than 10% of social workers under the age of 34. Compared to the early 1980s, the number stood at 36%. And in the 1970s, men received half of master’s degrees in psychology, compared to 20% in 2013.
Dragana Gordic // Shutterstock
- Total students: 8,499
- Percent male students: 8.0%
- Percent female students: 92.0%
A degree in human development and family studies can lead to jobs such as social worker, marriage or family therapist, or rehabilitation counselor. Men account for fewer than 10% of social workers under the age of 34. Compared to the early 1980s, the number stood at 36%. And in the 1970s, men received half of master’s degrees in psychology, compared to 20% in 2013.
Fewer than 3% of preschool and kindergarten teachers are men, according to 2019 figures from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. That number has remained unchanged over decades. A 2019 study from the Borough of Manhattan Community College in New York City found that male teachers encountered societal or cultural resistance. Other barriers to making the field more diverse: low pay, few mentors, and traditional recruiting approaches that fail to reach men.
This story was produced and distributed in partnership with Stacker Studio.
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- Total students: 12,179
- Percent male students: 3.8%
- Percent female students: 96.2%
Fewer than 3% of preschool and kindergarten teachers are men, according to 2019 figures from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. That number has remained unchanged over decades. A 2019 study from the Borough of Manhattan Community College in New York City found that male teachers encountered societal or cultural resistance. Other barriers to making the field more diverse: low pay, few mentors, and traditional recruiting approaches that fail to reach men.
This story was produced and distributed in partnership with Stacker Studio.
Only about 1 in 5 computer scientists are women. Rachel Murray/Getty Images for MGA Entertainment
